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Cancer Center

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Welcome to my compendium website about

My MD Anderson
Cancer Center

Information Frequently Asked Questions ( FAQ)

User Friendly Version

 

" I predict that by May 10, 2017 it will become standard in at least one state that any doctor that does not prescribe nutrition control in cancer treatment will be subject to being guilty of malpractice. Brian Nelson"

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MD Anderson Cancer Treatment Center, Carcinomas, Sarcomas, Leukiemias, Lymphonmas, Causes, Environmental,  Hereditary, Symptoms, Biopsy, Endoscopy, Diagnostic Imaging, Blood Tests, Surgery, Chemotherapy, Radiation, Immunotherapy, Gene Therapy, Clinical Trials, Prevention, Diagnostic, Staging, Curative, Supportive, Restorative, Palliative, Intravenous, Oral, Injections, External, Internal Beam, Interons, Interleukins, Monoclonal Antibodies, Vaccines, Colony Stimulating Factors, Complementary Medicine, Alternative Medical Systems, Mind-Body, Biologically Based Therapies, Manipulative, Energy, Caregivers, Network, Legal, Malpractice, Law Suit, Compassionate,  People Profiles, Stomach, Fertility, Cervical, Trachelectomy,  Hysterectomy, Acupuncture,   Newsletter, Oncologist, Exercise, Diet, Fatigue, Childhood, Sexual Function,  Prostate, Primary, Risk, Menopausal, Amenorrhea, Hot Flashes, Vaginal Atrophy, Osteoporosis, Cardiovascular, Thyroid, Breast Disease, Mental Survivors, Insurance, Evaluations, Clinic, Surveillance, Guidelines, Organ Malignancies, Complications, Educating Nurses,



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Making Cancer History
At M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, our mission is simple – to eliminate cancer. Achieving that goal begins with integrated programs in cancer treatment, clinical trials, education programs and cancer prevention.

To us, people are more than just their cancer symptoms. Compassion – along with innovative cancer treatment, cutting-edge cancer research, comprehensive education and research-based prevention of both common and rare cancers – has earned the gratitude of countless adult and pediatric cancer patients and their families. M. D. Anderson: life-saving, life-changing care, since 1941.
Cancer Basics

What is Cancer?
Cancer isn't just one disease. It is a large and complex family of malignancies that can affect virtually every organ in the body. Cancer is second o
nly to heart disease as the leading cause of death in the United States. Over 1.2 million new cases are diagnosed every year, with half of them occurring in the lung, prostate, breast, colon and rectum. Cancer can strike at any age, although it is most common in people over 50.  

Cancer begins in the body's cells, which are constantly dividing and multiplying to replace old, damaged cells. Sometimes, cells begin to divide unnecessarily, forming excess tissue known as a tumor. In most cases, tumors are benign, meaning that they are not cancerous. Benign tumors, although they may cause some health problems depending on their size and location, are not life-threatening.

However, if an abnormal cell begins to divide, it eventually forms a malignant, or cancerous tumor. Most malignant tumors grow quite rapidly, invading nearby organs and tissues. Cancerous cells can also travel through the bloodstream to other regions of the body. When cancer spreads from its original site, the process is known as metastasis. 

The good news is that cancer death rates have been declining in recent years, especially among men, who generally experience higher rates than women. Increasing public awareness has resulted in more people getting regular cancer screenings, and practicing healthy lifestyles to reduce their risk.   

  Types of Cancer
There are many different types of cancer.  Several factors, including location and how the cancerous cells appear under the microscope, determine how cancer is diagnosed.  For example, there are several forms of breast cancer, classified according to where the tumors originate within the breast, and their tendency to invade surrounding organs and tissue. All cancers, however, fall into one of four broad categories:

Carcinomas are tumors that arise in the tissues that line the body's organs. About 80% of all cancer cases are carcinomas.
 

Sarcomas are tumors that originate in bone, muscle, cartilage, fibrous tissue or fat.
 

Leukemias are cancers of the blood or blood-forming organs.

Lymphomas affect the lymphatic system, a network of vessels and nodes that acts as the body's filter. The lymphatic system distributes nutrients to blood and tissue, and prevents bacteria and other foreign "invaders" from entering the bloodstream.   There are over 20 types of lymphoma.

Causes of Cancer
The vast majority of cancers--about 80%--are considered sporadic, meaning that there is no clear cause. For some reason, certain normal genes begin to mutate (change), multiplying rapidly and becoming malignant. There are several environmental influences that may cause these gene mutations to occur. In fact, a large number of cancers are preventable because most of these factors can be controlled with healthy lifestyle choices. 

Environmental causes of cancer include:

  • Age: cancer is most common among people over the age of 50. 
  • Diet: high-fat, high-cholesterol diets are proven risk factors for several types of cancer, particularly colon cancer
  • Obesity: although no clear link has been established, research indicates obesity may be a contributing factor to some cancers.
  • Cigarettes greatly increase the lung cancer risk, even among non-smokers forced to inhale secondhand smoke. Other tobacco products, like pipes and chewing tobacco, are linked to cancers of the mouth, tongue and throat.
  • Long-term exposure to chemicals like asbestos, radon and benzene
  • Exposure to high levels of radiation
  • Harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun are directly linked to melanoma and other forms of skin cancer
  • Some viruses, including hepatitis B and C, human papillomaviruses (HPV), and the Epstein-Barr virus, which causes infectious mononucleosis, have been associated with increased cancer risk 
  • Immune system diseases, like AIDS, can make one more susceptible to some cancers

The other 20% of cancers are hereditary.  This means that the abnormal gene responsible for causing the cancer is passed from parent to child, posing a greater risk for that type of cancer in all descendants of the family. However, just because someone has a cancer-causing gene doesn't mean they will automatically get cancer. If hereditary cancer is suspected, family members should consider genetic counseling and testing to determine their risk.  Regular cancer screenings are recommended for high-risk families so that if cancer does occur, it will be diagnosed in the early stages, when it's most responsive to treatment.

Signs of hereditary cancer include:

  • Several relatives with cancer
  • Cancers that occur at an earlier age than normal
  • Multiple or bilateral cancers: for example, a person with breast cancer who also develops ovarian cancer
  • Rare or unusual types of cancer
  • Ethnic background: some cancers are more common among certain population groups

 

Symptoms of Cancer
Unfortunately, many types of cancer don't display any obvious symptoms or cause pain until well advanced.  Because early-stage cancer symptoms tend to be subtle, they are often mistaken for signs of other, less-threatening diseases. Here are the seven warning signs of cancer:
  • Changes in bowel or bladder habits
  • A sore that does not heal
  • Unusual bleeding or discharge
  • Thickening or lump in the breast or any other part of the body
  • Indigestion or difficulty swallowing
  • An obvious change in a wart or mole
  • A nagging cough or hoarseness

Some symptoms are specific to certain types of cancer, such as difficult urination for prostate cancer, or flu-like symptoms for acute leukemias. Don't be afraid to discuss unusual symptoms with your doctor!  Diagnostic tests are available for most common cancers. If diagnosed early, your chances of surviving cancer are greatly increased. 

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Brian Nelson's Blue Box 3

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31 Gessner Rd., Houston, TX  77024 Tel. 713-467-3025, Fax 713-467-3192  :Click to E-mail me
Animals

Dog - Cat/ Diarrhea & Constipation
Carpenter Ant  Koi Pond Fish
Anti-Aging

Youthful Beauty Anti-Aging

Automotive

Car Auto Safety
Car  Crash Tests
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CANCER


Cancer- Head-Neck-
Cancer Chemotherapy
Cancer Fighting Foods
Cancer Capsaicin
 
Dogs Detecting Cancer

Cancer Healing Foods 
Prostate Cancer
Foreign Accent Syndrome


Cancer Treatment
Cancer & Malnutrition

Cancer Radiation
Chemotherapy Info V1
 V2 NI
Cancer-Chemotherapy 2
 
Cancer Feeding Tube
Cancer of Jill Bates Father.

I Am Fighting Cancer.com  
Lung Cancer  
Herceptin Trastuzumab

My MD Anderson Cancer Center
COMPUTERS

Computer Repair
Remove Mirar 

Keyboard Tips & Tricks  
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Computers & Internet Directories
 
Microsoft Vista

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CONSULTING

Brian Nelson Consulting .com
The Business Critic.com
NelsonIdeas.com
Entrepreneur Think Tank

Warranty Vs. Guarantee

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Consumer Issues

Wal-Mart  Great Outdoors Grill
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Microwave Safety
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Brian's Websites


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Engineering

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Entertainment
and Funny Stuff

Ted-Drews vs Shipley Donuts

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l
Houston Area Free

 

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BigMilitaryDirectories.com

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Josephine Visnovske.
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Brian's Best Digital Photos
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Pope John Paul II 1920-2005
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Photography
Kitchen-Remodeling-
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Metro Rail Accident Record
End Addiction To Oil
Global Warming It Must be Stopped
 


Immigration Laws Legal Enforcement
NelsonsNewsletter.com
Hillary Clinton  2008 Pres. Candidate

Barack Obama 2008 Pres. Candidate
Rudi Giuliani 2008 Pres. Candidate
Joe Biden 2008 Pres. Candidate

John Edwards 2008 Pres. Candidate
 
Real Estate

Dean Nelson,Realtor Madison, WI.

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Houston-Recumbent-Bike-Club.com
BarbQ Cookoff " Outta Control "Cookers
Adam Weinstien Buffalo Bayou
Red-Stairs.com

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Religious

Bible Pronunciation Audio A-M
Bible Pronunciation Audio N-Z
Bible Pronunciation Written  A-M

Bible Pronunciation WRITTEN  N-Z
OLD Testament Brian's Directory. .
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Intelligent Design Creationism-Evolution
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MDPC Future

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God Is The .com 

Technology

Cell-Phone-Expert.com
AdSense and AdWords Marketing
Research Tips and Tricks
 
U of H Internet Marketing SEO via EBay

Remove Mirar  A Bad Toolbar

Misspelled Words On Brians Websites
Pelamis Wave Energy Converter Electricity


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 Tents, Tarps, Party Tent Kits, Domes, Canopies  & Awnings

Competitors Tent-Directory
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Generic-Text Only  PTC
Info
Misspelled Party Tent Words
Party Tent Duradiagrams
Modular Tents Template

History of Tents
 

Party Tent City.com 
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ChangingIdeas.com Tent Folder  



IdeaPhotos.com Tents File

Dome Tent Photos and Instructions.
Clear Tarps/ Clear Window Tarp
Changing Ideas Party Tents

Party Tent Compressed Version

Emergency Server Back Up  2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19
,
20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,
,
35,36,37,38,39,40,

Tent Installation Instructions
Tarp City .com Fire Retardant,

Tent DuraDiagrams 1 Connector
Images
.
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Cruise to Cozumel, Mexico Progresso,
China Travel
Josephine Visnovske's Greece
World Travel Directories  FAQ's on Air

Google Earth.
Evergreen Club& Affordable Travel Club
B & R Nelson New England Seniors Visited

Evergreen Club & Affordable Travel Club  Lyn & David Hargreaves  Animals & Scenic Photos

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Trigeminal Neuralgia

Dental Education Trigeminal Neuralgia  Trigeminal Neuralgia Patient Pain Stories
My Trigeminal Neuralgia (TN) Story
My Story on TN Brian N 
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Medical Data Base

MyTrigeminal Neuralgia Story Directory

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Trigeminal
Neuragia Portland,


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MyTrigeminal Neuralgia Stories Directory Brian's TN Story Quck Version 
Shirley's Trigeminal Neuragia
Sand's Trigeminal Neuralgiai

 
Wanted

Wanted Vinyl Outdoor Building Material  Wanted to Buy


Classifieds  List FREE.  
Free Internet Classified Advertising
Wanted to Buy Used Drapes
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Houston

Whispering Oaks-Recycle Team Houston,

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Diagnosis of Cancer
There is a wide array of methods to diagnose cancer. As researchers learn more about the mechanisms of cancer, new diagnostic tools are constantly being developed and existing methods refined. If your primary care physician suspects cancer, he or she may order some tests to confirm the diagnosis.  These tests can either be conducted by your physician or by oncologists at cancer centers like M. D. Anderson.  No matter who makes the diagnosis, a second opinion by a cancer expert is strongly recommended. Some types of cancer, particularly lymphomas, can be hard to classify, even for an expert.  Accurate identification of cancer allows oncologists to choose the most effective treatment. The most common diagnostic methods include: 

Biopsy: a small tissue sample is surgically removed and examined under a microscope for the presence of cancer cells. Depending on tumor location, some biopsies can be done on an outpatient basis with only local anesthesia. If the tumor is filled with fluid, a type of biopsy known as a fine needle aspiration is used. A long, thin needle is inserted directly into the suspicious area to draw out fluid samples for examination.

Endoscopy: a flexible plastic tube with a tiny camera on the end is inserted into body cavities and organs, allowing the physician to view the suspicious area.  There are many types of scopes, each designed to view particular areas of the body.  For instance, a colonoscope is used to detect growths inside the colon, and a laparoscope is used to examine the abdominal cavity.

Diagnostic imaging: several techniques are used to produce an internal picture of the body and its structures. Types of imaging methods include:

  • X-rays are the most common way doctors make pictures of the inside of the body. Specialists can spot abnormal areas that may indicate the presence of cancer.
  • CAT scan (computerized axial tomography), uses radiographic beams to create detailed computerized pictures taken with a specialized X-ray machine. It is more precise than a standard X-ray, and provides a clearer image.
    • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses a powerful magnetic field to create detailed computer images of the body’s soft tissue, large blood vessels and major organs. MRI is an accurate but expensive process, and patients must lie completely still during the procedure for best results.
    • Ultrasound uses high-frequency sound waves to determine if a suspicious lump is solid or fluid. These sound waves are transmitted into the body and converted into a computerized image.

    Blood tests: some tumors release substances called tumor markers, which can be detected in the blood.  A blood test for prostate cancer determines the amount of prostate specific antigen (PSA). Higher than normal PSA levels can indicate cancer.  Recently, a blood test for ovarian cancer, known as CA-125, has become available.  However, blood tests by themselves can be inconclusive, and other methods should be used to confirm the diagnosis.

      Treatment of Cancer
    There are four major types of cancer treatment: surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and immunotherapy. These therapies can be used either alone or in combination with each other. Location, size and stage of the tumor, as well as your overall health, determines which treatment or treatments you will receive. Many new treatments, including cancer vaccines and gene therapy, are being studied in clinical trials. 

    Patients at M. D. Anderson are treated by a team of specialists tailored to meet a patient's individual needs. The team may include a medical oncologist, a surgeon, a radiation oncologist, a pathologist, and other health care professionals. This multidisciplinary approach to cancer care was pioneered by M. D. Anderson.

    Current methods of cancer treatment:

    • Surgery is the oldest form of cancer treatment. About 60% of cancer patients will undergo some sort of surgery, either by itself or in combination with other therapies.
    • Chemotherapy uses powerful drugs to kill cancer cells, control their growth, or to relieve pain symptoms.
    • Radiation uses large doses of high-energy beams or particles to destroy cancer cells in a specifically targeted area.
    • Immunotherapy, also known as biologic therapy, stimulates the body's own defense systems to fight cancer. 
    • Gene Therapy identifies missing or defective genes that cause cancer or increase cancer risk, and replaces them with normal copies.
    • Clinical Trials, in which new treatment methods are tested on human subjects, can provide options for patients whose cancer has not responded to standard therapies. 
    Prevention of Cancer
    Up to 85% of cancers can be prevented by avoiding environmental risk factors like smoking, sun exposure, alcohol abuse and poor nutrition. Of course, things like age, race, gender and family history cannot be changed, but knowing your personal cancer risk can help you devise a prevention strategy with regular screenings and healthy lifestyle choices. Having one or more risk factors for cancer doesn't mean you will get cancer. In fact, many people considered high-risk never develop cancer while others with no known risk factors become ill.

    M. D. Anderson's Cancer Prevention Center can help you with risk assessment, cancer screening, genetic testing and other services, including information on nutrition and smoking cessation. Follow the road to cancer prevention by taking charge of your health.

    " I predict that by May 10, 2017 it will become standard in at least one state that any doctor that does not prescribe nutrition control in cancer treatment will be subject to being guilty of malpractice. Brian Nelson"
    Treatments
    After 56 years of research and patient care, M. D. Anderson has developed an arsenal of standard treatment practices that have proven effective on many different types of cancer.  Depending on the type of disease, these treatments are used alone or in combination to either control cancer cell growth or to eliminate the disease entirely.  M. D. Anderson reseachers continue to explore new treatment methods throught its many clinical trials.

    Learn more about current methods of cancer treatment, and how to make the right decisions for you:

    Surgery
    Surgery is the oldest form of cancer treatment. About 60% of cancer patients will undergo surgery, either by itself or in combination with other therapies.

    There are seven types of cancer surgery:

    1 Preventive surgery is used to keep cancer from occurring. Many colon cancers can be prevented by removing precancerous polyps before they become malignant. A woman at very high risk for breast cancer may decide to have her breasts removed rather than worry about getting breast cancer later in life.

    2 Diagnostic surgery is also known as a biopsy. In this procedure, the surgeon removes some or all of a tumor for examination to determine if the growth is cancerous. A biopsy can be done in several ways, such as:

    Fine Needle Aspiration (FNA): a needle is inserted into the tumor and material is drawn out for inspection under a microscope.

    Incisional or Excisional Biopsy: the patient is put under local or regional anesthesia, which numbs the area, and a small incision is made in the skin. The surgeon either removes a piece of a large tumor (incisional), or the entire mass (excisional), for further examination. If the tumor is in the chest or abdomen, general anesthesia is used.

    3 Staging surgery is used to determine the extent of a cancer. This procedure can sometimes be done without an incision by using tiny cameras (scopes) attached to a flexible tube, which are inserted into natural body openings. An endoscope is used in hollow body cavities and organs such as the lungs, intestinal tract and urinary tract. Besides allowing surgeons to view the suspicious area, these devices can take a tissue sample. A laparascope is used to view the abdominal cavity. Laparotomy involves a small incision in the abdominal cavity, done under general anesthesia. Laparotomies are used when the suspicious area cannot be examined by less invasive procedures.

    4 Curative surgery simply involves removal of a cancerous tumor. It works best on localized cancers that haven't yet spread to other parts of the body, and is often followed by radiation therapy or chemotherapy to make sure all cancerous cells have been removed.

    5 Supportive surgery is used to help with other cancer treatments. For example, some chemotherapy devices require a port (connecting device) to be inserted under the skin.

    6 Restorative surgery returns the body to normal or near normal appearance or function following cancer treatment. The most common restorative surgery is reconstruction of a breast after a mastectomy. Facial reconstruction and testicular implants are also examples of restorative surgery.

    7 Palliative surgery is only used to ease pain, disability or other complications that come with advanced cancer. Palliative surgery may improve quality of life, but is not a cure or anticancer treatment.

     

    Chemotherapy
    Chemotherapy uses powerful drugs to kill cancer cells, control their growth, or relieve pain symptoms. Chemotherapy may involve one drug, or a combination of two or more drugs, depending on the type of cancer and its rate of progression. Chemotherapy can be used in combination with other treatments such as surgery or radiation, to make sure all cancer cells have been eliminated.

    Chemotherapy is administered in three ways:

    Intravenous (IV) is by far the most common method. A needle is inserted into a vein and attached with tubing to a plastic bag holding the chemotherapy drugs. The needle is taken out at the end of each treatment.

    For some patients who undergo several chemotherapy sessions, a catheter, another type of plastic tubing, is inserted into one of the large veins and left in place during the entire chemotherapy regimen. Some patients have a metal or plastic disc known as a "port" implanted under the skin, to serve as an IV connection device.

    IV bags are attached to a tall metal stand with wheels, providing some mobility. Some patients wear a small pump outside the body, with minimal interference to their normal routine. Other patients may have a drug pump surgically inserted into their body.

    Oral chemotherapy drugs are given in pill or liquid form.
     

    Injections are administered into the muscle, under the skin, or directly into a cancer lesion, depending on the type or location of the cancer.

    Side effects vary from patient to patient and with the type of drugs used. The good news is that there are therapies to help you cope with some side effects, and lost hair does grow back, although sometimes in a different color or texture. The most common side effects of chemotherapy include:

    • Temporary hair loss
    • Fatigue
    • Nausea
    • Pain
    • Increased risk of infection
    • Depression
    • Increased sun sensitivity
    • Numbness or weakness in the hands and feet

    Radiation Therapy
    Also known as radiotherapy, this treatment uses large doses of high-energy beams or particles to destroy cancer cells in a specifically targeted area. Radiation damages the internal chemical structure of cancer cells, which keeps them from multiplying. Radiotherapy is most commonly used on localized solid tumors, and on cancers that affect the bloodstream, such as leukemia and lymphoma.

    Over 50% of cancer patients will undergo radiation therapy; for some, it will be the only cancer treatment they need. Radiation is often used in combination with other treatments. Used before or during other procedures, radiation shrinks the tumor to make surgery or chemotherapy more effective. Used afterward, it destroys any cancer cells that might remain.

    There are two basic types of radiotherapy:

    External Beam Radiation uses specialized machines to administer a high dose of radiation directly to the cancer site and to a small amount of healthy tissue at the margins of the tumor. Different machines are used for tumors of various types or in different locations in the body. In 1948, M. D. Anderson scientists created the first machine to use a radioactive material called cobalt-60, a technology that is still in use today. Other radiation machines use X-rays or electron beams.

    Internal Radiation, also known as brachytherapy, involves radioactive material that is implanted in the body at the cancer site. Radiation implants are small tubes, seeds or capsules filled with different types of radioactive material and sealed. Sometimes, implants are used at a tumor site after its removal, to kill any lingering cancer cells.

    Side effects are usually limited to the radiation site, although many patients will experience overall fatigue. Normal cells that may be affected by radiotherapy will usually repair themselves. Patients receiving radiotherapy in the abdomen may have nausea, while radiation to the pelvis may trigger diarrhea. Skin in the target area may become irritated, change color or become overly sensitive. These effects usually fade after several weeks. Hair loss at the radiation site can sometimes be permanent. Always make your cancer specialist aware of any side effects, no matter how minor they seem.

    Gene Therapy
    Much of today's cancer research is devoted to finding missing or defective genes that cause cancer or increase an individual's risk for certain types of cancer. Gene research at M. D. Anderson has resulted in many important discoveries. We identified the mutated multiple advanced cancers gene (MMAC1) involved in some common cancers. We also performed the first successful correction of a defective tumor suppressor gene (p53) in human lung cancer. Current gene therapies are experimental, and many are still tested only on animals. There are some clinical trials involving a very small number of human subjects.

    The potential benefits of gene therapy are twofold:

    • Gene-based treatments can attack existing cancer at the molecular level, eliminating the need for drugs, radiation or surgery
       
    • Identifying cancer susceptibility genes in individuals or families can have a major role in preventing the disease before it occurs

    The focus of most gene therapy research is the replacement of a missing or defective gene with a functional, healthy copy, which is delivered to target cells with a "vector." Viruses are commonly used as vectors because of their ability to penetrate a cell’s DNA. These vector viruses are inactivated so they cannot reproduce and cause disease. Gene transfer therapy can be done outside the body (ex vivo) by extracting bone marrow or blood from the patient and growing the cells in a laboratory. The corrected copy of the gene is introduced and allowed to penetrate the cells’ DNA before being injected back into the body. Gene transfers can also be done directly inside the patient’s body (in vivo).
    Other therapies include:

    • Injecting cancer cells with special genes that make the tumor more receptive to the effects of anticancer drugs
       
    • Introducing the multi-drug resistant (MDR) gene into bone marrow to make stem cells more immune to the toxic side effects of anticancer drugs. Stem cells are responsible for the production of blood cells

    Gene therapy is a complicated area of research, and many questions remain unanswered. Some cancers are caused by more than one gene, and some vectors, if used incorrectly, can actually cause cancer or other diseases. Replacing faulty genes with working copies also brings up ethical issues that must be addressed before these therapies can be accepted for preventing cancer. Talk to your cancer specialist about the implications of gene therapy.

    Immunotherapy
    There are new treatments that use the body's own natural defenses to fight cancer. Immunotherapy, also known as biotherapy or biological response modifiers, works on white blood cells - the body's first line of defense against disease. White blood cells can be stimulated in various ways to boost the body's immune response to cancer, with little or no effect on healthy tissue. Immunotherapy can also be used to lessen the side effects of other cancer treatments.

    Some immunotherapies have already received approval from the Food and Drug Administration for certain types of cancer. Others are being tested in clinical trials. Biological response modifiers are developed in a laboratory and then injected into the body.

    Side effects of immunotherapies can vary, but most exhibit similar symptoms, including fatigue, a rash or swelling at the injection site, and flu-like symptoms including nausea, diarrhea and fever.

    There are five general types of biological response modifiers. They can be used alone or in combination with each other, or they can be used in addition to other cancer treatments.

    Interferons are a group of three proteins released by white blood cells in reaction to invading organisms, to improve the immune system's reaction to cancer. Interferon alpha is approved for treatment of some cancers, including melanoma and chronic myeloid leukemia, but is being studied for use on other cancers.

    Interleukins are proteins that increase growth and activity in the body's immune cells. Ten interleukins have been identified so far, but IL-2 is approved as an anti-cancer treatment, particularly for kidney cancers and melanomas that have metastasized (spread) to other regions of the body.

    Monoclonal Antibodies are created in the laboratory by fusing two different types of cells together. Monoclonal antibodies are designed to attack specific areas on the surface of cells known as antigens. Antigens help the body identify cells that are foreign, like germs or cancer cells, and stimulate an immune response. Monoclonal antibodies show promise both as a cancer treatment and a diagnostic tool.

    Vaccines help the body recognize cancer cells and trigger the immune system to destroy them. There are several types of cancer vaccines. Some contain cancer cells that have been killed with radiation so they cannot produce new tumors. Others contain lab-produced antigens designed to attach themselves to cancer cells. Cancer vaccines are used to either help the body reject cancer tumors or to keep them from recurring.

    Colony Stimulating Factors work in the bone marrow, where red and white blood cells and platelets are produced. Colony Stimulating Factors increase the division of bone marrow cells, which strengthens the immune system and allows patients to endure higher doses of chemotherapy drugs.

    For more detailed information on immunotherapies, check out the American Cancer Society website and click on treatment options, or go to Cancernet.

     

    Complementary Therapy
     

    Complementary therapies include therapies and programs that seek to support the mind, body and spirit during or after conventional cancer therapies. Complementary/Integrative Medicine seeks to combine the best of conventional and complementary approaches with the knowledge and awareness of the primary conventional physician and other health care providers.

    Types of complementary medicine include:

    Alternative Medical Systems that are based upon theories and practices that have evolved outside of conventional Western medicine. Examples include traditional Chinese medicine, Ayurveda, and Homeopathy.

    Mind-Body Therapies include a variety of approaches designed to facilitate the mind's capacity to affect bodily function and symptoms. Examples include support groups, music, art, movement, visualization and meditation.

    Biologically Based Therapies include herbal/plant, animal or other substances and nutritional approaches.

    Manipulative/Body Based Therapies include methods such as massage that move or manipulate the body.

    Energy Therapies focus upon energy perceived to be within or outside the body. Examples include Yoga, Healing Touch, Reiki, Qigong and magnets.

    M. D. Anderson's Place...of wellness offers more than 75 complementary therapy programs, most free of charge, to manage symptoms, relieve stress and enhance quality of life. Place…of wellness is open to all patients and caregivers, regardless of where treatment was received. View monthly listings on the program calendar, or call (713) 794-4700. 

    M. D. Anderson's Integrative Medicine Program provides research and educational resources on complementary therapies.
     
    A few words about alternative therapies
    The terms "complementary" and "alternative" are often used interchangeably, when in fact they are two different therapies. Complementary therapies are used
    in addition to standard treatment, but alternative therapies are used instead of standard treatment.

    Many alternative therapies marketed in TV, radio, Internet and print ads claim to be cancer cures even though they have not been demonstrated as either safe or effective in reputable scientific testing. Warning signs include those that require travel to a foreign country, claim to cure all forms of cancer, or urge you to avoid conventional treatments.

    Beware of any alternative treatments without specific scientific evidence to back them up. You may review the scientific evidence concerning many of these therapies on M. D. Anderson’s Complementary/Integrative Medicine Education Resources web site.

    M. D. Anderson Cancer Center encourages all patients to consult their primary health care provider to discuss the advantages and risks of complementary medical treatments

    Making Treatment Decisions
    There are so many factors to consider before launching your personal fight against cancer, from finances to the emotional strain on loved ones. M. D. Anderson's team of cancer specialists has the expertise to recommend the best course of action for your particular type of cancer, but you must take an active role in your care.

    Here are some things to consider before agreeing to cancer treatment:

    Second opinion - if you have been diagnosed with cancer by your primary care physician, it is wise to get a second opinion from a cancer specialist. In fact, many health insurance plans require a second opinion before covering some treatment costs. If the specialist agrees with the first diagnosis, he or she can let you know what treatment options exist for your type of cancer, depending on how advanced it is.

    Prognosis - a prognosis is a cancer specialist's best estimate of how your disease will respond to treatment, and what your life expectancy may be. Some patients, especially if their cancer was discovered in the early stages, may only need minor treatment. At the other end of the spectrum, patients with advanced cancer may not have any treatment options, or they have an aggressive form of cancer with a very low survival rate.

    Patients who receive the worst news may go ahead with treatment anyway in the hope of a cure, or to live long enough to take care of personal affairs. Others may refuse treatment. Whatever decision you make, consider the wishes of loved ones, and talk it over with your cancer care team.

    Cost/insurance coverage - because cancer treatment involves sophisticated techniques, machinery and medicine, it can be very expensive. Some treatments require a hospital stay of one night or more, which adds on to the overall cost. Health insurance and managed care plans rarely cover all the costs of cancer treatment, so it’s important to find out what is and is not covered by your policy. Uncovered expenses are the patient’s responsibility.

    Travel - cancer patients travel from all over the world to be treated at M. D. Anderson, and many bring family members, sometimes for an extended stay. Travel and lodging costs can add up quickly, and must be considered along with treatment expenses. M. D. Anderson’s Patient Travel Service offers discounts with some airlines, hotels and ground transportation, as well as a full-service travel agency to handle the needs of patients and their caregivers. Call 1-888-848-9992 for information.

    Caregivers - cancer treatment is difficult to get through without help from family or friends. In addition to emotional support, caregivers can provide transportation to and from treatment sessions, help with housework, grocery shopping and other personal affairs, and help the patient take an active role in the treatment process. You don’t have to fight cancer alone! M. D. Anderson offers several programs for patients and caregivers, to make the experience less lonely and frightening.

     

       

    • Anderson Network is a group of cancer survivors and caregivers who can offer support and advice
    • Community Outreach Support Groups in or near your hometown are available for some Texas and New Mexico residents. Call 1-800-345-6324 for information
    • Warmnet is our online support group for people with computer access

     

    Legal Issues - no matter what your prognosis may be, it is wise to prepare legal documents that spell out how your cancer treatments and personal affairs should be handled, if you become unable to make decisions. Advance directives include documents like living wills, medical power of attorney, and do-not-resuscitate orders. M. D. Anderson offers easy online forms for medical power of attorney and living wills.

    Clinical Trials - some patients may be eligible to join a clinical trial. These carefully controlled studies test new drugs or treatments that may be as good or better than standard care. Clinical trials have provided new hope for some people whose cancer has not responded to traditional treatments. M. D. Anderson has hundreds of clinical trials underway at any given time. For a partial list, go to http://www.clinicaltrials.org.

    Moving Forward - If you decide to proceed, then it's time to choose an oncologist (cancer doctor) and a hospital or clinic where the treatment will be carried out. M. D. Anderson accepts self-referrals from prospective patients. Fill out our patient self-referral form to get the process started. We also accept physician referrals.  

    Cancer Treatment Glossary of Terms Letters A-B

    A

    Abdomen (AB-do-men): The part of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.

    Accelerated phase (ak-SEL-er-ay-ted): Refers to chronic myelogenous leukemia that is progressing. The number of immature, abnormal white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood is higher than in the chronic phase, but not as high as in the blast phase.

    Achlorhydria (a-klor-HY-dree-a): A lack of hydrochloric acid in the digestive juices in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid helps digest food.

    Acoustic (ah-KOOS-tik): Related to sound or hearing.

    Actinic keratosis (ak-TIN-ik ker-a-TO-sis): A precancerous condition of thick, scaly patches of skin; also called solar or senile keratosis.

    Acute leukemia: Leukemia that progresses rapidly.

    Adenocarcinoma (AD-in-o-kar-sin-O-ma): Cancer that begins in cells that line certain internal organs.

    Adenoma (AD-in-o-ma): A noncancerous tumor.

    Adjuvant therapy (AD-joo-vant): Treatment given in addition to the primary treatment to enhance the effectiveness of the primary treatment.

    Adrenal glands (a-DREE-nal): A pair of small glands, one located on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands produce hormones that help control heart rate, blood pressure, the way the body uses food, and other vital functions.

    Aflatoxin (AF-la-TOK-sin): A substance made by a mold that is often found on poorly stored grains and nuts. Aflatoxins are known to cause cancer in animals.

    Agranulocyte (A-gran-yoo-lo-SITE): A type of white blood cell; monocytes and lymphocytes are agranulocytes.

    Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (AL-o-jen-AY-ik): A procedure in which a patient receives bone marrow from a compatible, though not genetically identical, donor.

    Alpha-fetoprotein (AL-fa FEE-to-PRO-teen): A protein often found in abnormal amounts in the blood of patients with liver cancer.

    Alveoli (al-VEE-o-lye): Tiny air sacs at the end of the bronchioles.

    Amputation (am-pyoo-TAY-shun): Surgery to remove all or some of a body part.

    Amylase (AM-il-aze): An enzyme that helps the body digest starches.

    Anal Cancer: Anal cancer, an uncommon cancer, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the anus. The anus is the opening at the end of the rectum (the end part of the large intestine) through which body waste passes.

    Anaplastic (an-ah-PLAS-tik): A term used to describe cancer cells that divide rapidly and bear little or no resemblance to normal cells.

    Anastamosis (an-AS-ta-MO-sis): A procedure to connect healthy sections of the colon or rectum after the diseased portion has been surgically removed.

    Androgen (AN-dro-jenz): A hormone that promotes the development and maintenance of male sex characteristics.

    Anemia (a-NEE-mee-a): A decrease in the normal amounts of red blood cells.

    Anesthesia (an-es-THEE-zha): Loss of feeling or awareness. A local anesthetic causes loss of feeling in a part of the body. A general anesthetic puts the person to sleep.

    Anesthetic (an-es-THET-ik): A substance that causes loss of feeling or awareness. A local anesthetic causes loss of feeling in a part of the body. A general anesthetic puts the person to sleep.

    Angiogenesis (an-gee-o-GEN-e-sis): Blood vessel formation, which usually accompanies the growth of malignant tissue.

    Angiogram (AN-jee-o-gram): An x-ray of blood vessels; the patient receives an injection of dye to outline the vessels on the x-ray.

    Angiography (an-jee-O-gra-fee): A procedure to x-ray blood vessels. The blood vessels can be seen because of an injection of a dye that shows up in the x-ray pictures.

    Angiosarcoma (AN-jee-o-sar-KO-ma): A type of cancer that begins in the lining of blood vessels.

    Antiandrogen (an-tee-AN-dro-jen): A drug that blocks the action of male sex hormones.

    Antibiotics (an-ti-by-AH-tiks): Drugs used to treat infection.

    Antibody (AN-ti-BOD-ee): A protein produced by certain white blood cells in response to a foreign substance (antigen). Each antibody can bind only to a specific antigen. The purpose of this binding is to help destroy the antigen. Antibodies can work in several ways, depending on the nature of the antigen. Some antibodies disable antigens directly. Others make the antigen more vulnerable to destruction by white blood cells.

    Anticonvulsant (an-ti-kon-VUL-sant): Medicine to stop, prevent, or control seizures (convulsions).

    Antigen: Any foreign or "non-self" substance that, when introduced into the body, causes the immune system to create an antibody.

    Antithymocyte globulin (anti-THIGH-moe-site GLA-bu-lin): A protein preparation used to prevent and treat graft-versus-host disease.

    Anus (AY-nus): The opening of the rectum to the outside of the body.

    Aplastic anemia: A deficiency of certain parts of the blood caused by a failure of the bone marrow's ability to generate cells.

    Apoptosis (ay-paw-TOE-sis): A normal cellular process involving a genetically programmed series of events leading to the death of a cell.

    Areola (a-REE-oe-la): The area of dark-colored skin that surrounds the nipple.

    Arterial embolization (ar-TEE-ree-al EM-bo-lih-ZAY-shun): Blocking an artery so that blood cannot flow to the tumor.

    Arteriogram (ar-TEER-ee-o-gram): An x-ray of blood vessels, which can be seen after an injection of a dye that shows up in the x-ray pictures.

    Asbestos (as-BES-tus): A natural material that is made up of tiny fibers. If the fibers are inhaled, they can lodge in the lungs and lead to cancer.

    Ascites (a-SYE-teez): Abnormal buildup of fluid in the abdomen.

    Aspiration (as-per-AY-shun): Removal of fluid from a lump, often a cyst, with a needle and a syringe.

    Astrocytoma (as-tro-sye-TOE-ma): A type of brain tumor that begins in the brain or spinal chord in small, star-shaped cells called astrocytes.

    Asymptomatic: Presenting no signs or symptoms of disease.

    Ataxic gait (ah-TAK-sik): Awkward, uncoordinated walking.

    Atypical hyperplasia (hy-per-PLAY-zha): A benign (noncancerous) condition in which tissue has certain abnormal features.

    Autologous bone marrow transplantation (aw-TAHL-o-gus): A procedure in which bone marrow is removed from a patient and then is given back to the patient following intensive treatment.

    Axilla (ak-SIL-a): The underarm.

    Axillary (AK-sil-air-ee): Pertaining to the lymph nodes under the arm.

    Axillary dissection (AK-sil-air-ee): Surgery to remove lymph nodes under the arm.

     B

    B cells: White blood cells that develop in the bone marrow and are the source of antibodies. Also known as B lymphocytes.

    Barium enema: A series of x-rays of the lower intestine. The x-rays are taken after the patient is given an enema with a white, chalky solution that contains barium. The barium outlines the intestines on the x-rays.

    Barium solution: A liquid containing barium sulfate that is used in x-rays to highlight parts of the digestive system.

    Barrett's esophagus: A change in the cells of the tissue that lines the bottom of the esophagus. The esophagus may become irritated when the contents of the stomach back up (reflux). Reflux that happens often over a long period of time can lead to Barrett's esophagus.

    Basal cell carcinoma (BAY-sal sel kar-sin-O-ma): A type of skin cancer that arises from the basal cells.

    Basal cells: Small, round cells found in the lower part, or base, of the epidermis, the outer layer of the skin.

    Basophil: A type of white blood cell. Basophils are granulocytes.

    BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guerin): A substance that activates the immune system. Filling the bladder with a solution of BCG is a form of biological therapy for superficial bladder cancer.

    Benign (beh-NINE): Not cancerous; does not invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of the body.

    Benign prostatic hyperplasia (hy-per-PLAY-zha): A noncancerous condition in which an overgrowth of prostate tissue pushes against the urethra and the bladder, blocking the flow of urine. Also called benign prostatic hypertrophy or BPH.

    Benign tumor (beh-NINE): A noncancerous growth that does not spread to other parts of the body.

    Beta-carotene: A substance from which vitamin A is formed; a precursor of vitamin A.

    Bilateral: Affecting the right and left side of body.

    Bile: A yellow or orange fluid made by the liver. Bile is stored in the gallbladder. It passes through the common bile duct into the duodenum, where it helps digest fat.

    Bioimmunotherapy: Treatment to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune system to fight infection and disease.

    Biological response modifiers (by-o-LOJ-i-kal): Substances that stimulate the body's response to infection and disease. The body naturally produces small amounts of these substances. Scientists can produce some of them in the laboratory in large amounts and use them in cancer treatment. Also called BRMs.

    Biological therapy (by-o-LOJ-i-kul): The use of the body's immune system, either directly or indirectly, to fight cancer or to lessen side effects that may be caused by some cancer treatments. Also known as immunotherapy, biotherapy, or biological response modifier therapy.

    Biopsy (BYE-ahp-see): The removal of a sample of tissue, which is then examined under a microscope to check for cancer cells.

    Bladder: The hollow organ that stores urine.

    Bladder Cancer: Bladder cancer is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the bladder. The bladder, a hollow organ in the lower part of the abdomen, stores urine.

    Blast phase: Refers to advanced chronic myelogenous leukemia. In this phase, the number of immature, abnormal white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood is extremely high. Also called blast crisis.

    Blasts: Immature blood cells.

    Blood-brain barrier: A network of blood vessels with closely spaced cells that makes it difficult for potentially toxic substances (such as anticancer drugs) to penetrate the blood vessel walls and to enter the brain.

    Bone marrow: The soft, spongy tissue in the center of large bones that produces white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

    Bone marrow aspiration (as-per-AY-shun) or biopsy (BY-op-see): The removal of a small sample of bone marrow (usually from the hip) through a needle for examination under a microscope to see whether cancer cells are present.

    Bone marrow biopsy (BYE-ahp-see): The removal of a sample of tissue from the bone marrow with a large needle. The cells are checked to see whether they are cancerous. If cancerous plasma cells are found, the pathologist estimates how much of the bone marrow is affected. Bone marrow biopsy is usually done at the same time as bone marrow aspiration.

    Bone marrow transplantation (trans-plan-TAY-shun): A procedure in which doctors replace marrow destroyed by treatment with high doses of anticancer drugs or radiation. The replacement marrow may be taken from the patient before treatment or may be donated by another person.

    Bone scan: A technique to create images of bones on a computer screen or on film. A small amount of radioactive material is injected and travels through the bloodstream. It collects in the bones, especially in abnormal areas of the bones, and is detected by a scanner.

    Bowel: Another name for the intestine. There is both a small and a large bowel.

    Brachytherapy (BRAK-i-THER-a-pee): Internal radiation therapy using an implant of radioactive material placed directly into or near the tumor.

    Brain stem: The stemlike part of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord.

    Brain stem glioma (glee-O-ma): A type of brain tumor that occurs in the lowest, stemlike part of the brain.

    Brain Tumor:

    astrocytoma: Astrocytomas are tumors that start in brain cells called astrocytes. There are different kinds of astrocytomas, which are defined by how the cancer cells look under a microscope.

    ependymoma: Ependymal tumors are tumors that begin in the ependyma, the cells that line the passageways in the brain where special fluid that protects the brain and spinal cord (called cerebrospinal fluid) is made and stored. There are different kinds of ependymal tumors, which are defined by how the cells look under a microscope.

    glioblastoma: Glioblastoma multiformes are tumors that grow very quickly and have cells that look very different from normal cells. Glioblastoma multiforme is also called grade IV astrocytoma.

    medulloblastoma: Medulloblastomas are brain tumors that begin in the lower part of the brain. They are almost always found in children or young adults. This type of cancer may spread from the brain to the spine.

    BRCA1: A gene located on chromosome 17 that normally helps to restrain cell growth. Inheriting an altered version of BRCA1 predisposes an individual to breast, ovary, and prostate cancer.

    Breast reconstruction: Surgery to rebuild a breast's shape after a mastectomy.

    Bronchi (BRONK-eye): Air passage that leads from the windpipe to the lungs.

    Bronchioles (BRON-kee-ols): The tiny branches of air tubes in the lungs.

    Bronchitis (BRON-KYE-tis): Inflamation (swelling and reddening) of the bronchi.

    Bronchoscope (BRON-ko-skope): A flexible, lighted instrument used to examine the trachea and bronchi, the air passages that lead into the lungs.

    Bronchoscopy (bron-KOS-ko-pee): A test that permits the doctor to see the breathing passages through a lighted tube.

    Buccal mucosa (BUK-ul myoo-KO-sa): The inner lining of the cheeks and lips.

    Burkitt's lymphoma: A type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma that most often occurs in young people between the ages of 12 and 30. The disease usually causes a rapidly growing tumor in the abdomen.

    Bypass: A surgical procedure in which the doctor creates a new pathway for the flow of body fluids.

    Cancer Treatment Glossary of Terms Letters C-D

    C

    Calcium (KAL-see-um): A mineral found mainly in the hard part of bones.

    Cancer: A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells can invade nearby tissues and can spread through the bloodstream and lymphatic system to other parts of the body.

    Cancer Screening: Different tests may show whether a person has a higher than normal risk for getting certain types of cancer. The person's family history and medical history are also key parts of the cancer screening process.

    Carcinogen (kar-SIN-o-jin): Any substance that is known to cause cancer.

    Carcinogenesis: The process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells.

    Carcinoma (kar-sin-O-ma): Cancer that begins in the lining or covering of an organ.

    Carcinoma in situ (kar-sin-O-ma in SY-too): Cancer that involves only the cells in which it began and has not spread to other tissues.

    Cartilage (KAR-ti-lij): Firm, rubbery tissue that cushions bones at joints. A more flexible kind of cartilage connects muscles with bones and makes up other parts of the body, such as the larynx and the outside of the ears.

    Catheter (KATH-et-er): A tube that is placed in a blood vessel to provide a pathway for drug or nutrients.

    Cauterization (KAW-ter-i-ZAY-shun): The use of heat to destroy abnormal cells.

    CEA assay: A laboratory test to measure the level of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), a substance that is sometimes found in an increased amount in the blood of patients with certain cancers.

    Cell: The basic unit of any living organism.

    Cell differentiation: The process during which young, immature (unspecialized) cells take on individual characteristics and reach their mature (specialized) form and function.

    Cell motility: The ability of a cell to move.

    Cell proliferation: An increase in the number of cells as a result of cell growth and cell division.

    Cellular adhesion: The close adherence (bonding) to adjoining cell surfaces.

    Central nervous system: The brain and spinal cord. Also called CNS.

    Cerebellum (sair-uh-BELL-um): The portion of the brain in the back of the head between the cerebrum and the brain stem.

    Cerebral hemispheres (seh-REE-bral HEM-iss-feerz): The two halves of the cerebrum.

    Cerebrospinal fluid (seh-REE-bro-spy-nal): The watery fluid flowing around the brain and spinal cord. Also called CSF.

    Cerebrum (seh-REE-brum): The largest part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres, or halves.

    Cervical Cancer: Cancer of the cervix, a common kind of cancer in women, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the cervix. The cervix is the opening of the uterus (womb).

    Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (SER-vih-kul in-tra-eh-pih-THEEL-ee-ul NEE-o-play-zha): A general term for the growth of abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix. Numbers from 1 to 3 may be used to describe how much of the cervix contains abnormal cells. Also called CIN.

    Cervix (SER-viks): The lower, narrow end of the uterus that forms a canal between the uterus and vagina.

    Chemoprevention (KEE-mo-pre-VEN-shun): The use of natural or laboratory made substances to prevent cancer.

    Chemotherapy (kee-mo-THER-a-pee): Treatment with anticancer drugs.

    Cholangiosarcoma (ko-LAN-jee-o-sar-KO-ma): A type of cancer that begins in the bile ducts.

    Chondrosarcoma (KON-dro-sar-KO-ma): A cancer that forms in cartilage, occurring mainly in the pelvis, femur, and shoulder areas.

    Chordoma (kor-DO-ma): A form of bone cancer that usually starts in the lower spinal column.

    Chromosome (KRO-mo-soam): Part of a cell that contains genetic information. Normally, human cells contain 46 chromosomes that appear as a long thread inside the cell.

    Chronic leukemia (KRON-ik): Leukemia that progresses slowly.

    Chronic phase (KRON-ik): Refers to the early stages of chronic myelogenous leukemia or chronic lymphocytic leukemia. The number of immature, abnormal white blood cells in the bone marrow and blood is higher than normal, but lower than in the accelerated or blast phase.

    Clinical trials: Research studies that involve patients. Each study is designed to find better ways to prevent, detect, diagnose, or treat cancer and to answer scientific questions.

    CNS (central nervous system): The brain and the spinal cord.

    CNS prophylaxis (pro-fi-LAK-sis): Chemotherapy or radiation therapy to the central nervous system (CNS). This is preventive treatment. It is given to kill cancer cells that may be in the brain and spinal cord, even though no cancer has been detected there.

    Colectomy (ko-LEK-to-mee): An operation to remove all or part of the colon. In a partial colectomy, the surgeon removes only the cancerous part of the colon and a small amount (called a margin) of surrounding healthy tissue.

    Colon (KO-lun): The long, coiled, tubelike organ that removes water from digested food. The remaining material, solid waste called stool, moves through the colon to the rectum and leaves the body through the anus.

    Colon Cancer: Cancer of the colon, a common form of cancer, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the colon. The colon is part of the body's digestive system. The last 6 feet of intestine is called the large bowel or colon.

    Colonoscope (ko-LON-o-skope): A flexible, lighted instrument used to view the inside of the colon.

    Colonoscopy (ko-lon-OS-ko-pee): An examination in which the doctor looks at the colon through a flexible, lighted instrument called a colonoscope.

    Colony-stimulating factors: Substances that stimulate the production of blood cells. Treatment with colony-stimulating factors (CSF) can help the blood-forming tissue recover from the effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

    Colorectal (ko-lo-REK-tul): Related to the colon and/or rectum.

    Colostomy (ko-LOS-to-mee): An opening created by a surgeon into the colon from the outside of the body. A colostomy provides a new path for waste material to leave the body after part of the colon has been removed.

    Colposcopy (kul-POSS-ko-pee): A procedure in which a lighted magnifying instrument (called a colposcope) is used to examine the vagina and cervix.

    Combination chemotherapy: Treatment in which two or more chemicals are used to obtain more effective results.

    Common bile duct: Bile ducts are passageways that carry bile. Two major bile ducts come together into a "trunk"-the common bile duct which empties into the upper part of the small intestine (the part next to the stomach).

    Computed tomography (tom-OG-rah-fee): An x-ray procedure that uses a computer to produce a detailed picture of a cross section of the body; also called CAT or CT scan.

    Condylomata acuminata (kon-di-LOW-ma-ta a-kyoo-mi-NA-ta): Genital warts caused by certain human papillomaviruses.

    Conization (ko-ni-ZAY-shun): Surgery to remove a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix and cervical canal. Conization may be used to diagnose or treat a cervical condition. Also called cone biopsy.

    Continent reservoir (KAHN-tih-nent RES-er-vwar): A pouch formed from a piece of small intestine to hold urine after the bladder has been removed.

    Corpus: The body of the uterus.

    Craniopharyngioma (KRAY-nee-o-fah-rin-jee-O-ma): A type of brain tumor that develops in the region of the pituitary gland near the hypothalamus, the area of the brain that controls body temperature, hunger, and thirst. These tumors are usually benign, but are sometimes considered malignant because they can press on or damage the hypothalamus and affect vital functions.

    Craniotomy (kray-nee-OT-o-mee): An operation in which an opening is made in the skull so the doctor can reach the brain.

    Cryosurgery (KRY-o-SER-jer-ee): Treatment performed with an instrument that freezes and destroys abnormal tissues.

    Cryptorchidsm (kript-OR-kid-izm): A condition in which one or both testicles fail to move from the abdomen, where they develop before birth, into the scrotum; also called undescended testicles.

    CT (or CAT) scan: A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called computed tomography scan or computed axial tomography scan.

    Curettage (kyoo-re-TAHZH): Removal of tissue with a curette.

    Curette (kyoo-RET): A spoon-shaped instrument with a sharp edge.

    Cutaneous (kyoo-TAY-nee-us): Related to the skin.

    Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma: Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma is a disease in which certain cells of the lymph system (called T-lymphocytes) become cancer (malignant) and affect the skin. Lymphocytes are infection-fighting white blood cells that are made in the bone marrow and by other organs of the lymph system. T-cells are special lymphocytes that help the body's immune system kill bacteria and other harmful things in the body.

    Cyst (sist): A sac or capsule filled with fluid.

    Cystectomy (sis-TEK-to-mee): Surgery to remove the bladder.

    Cystoscope (SIS-to-skope): An instrument that allows the doctor to see inside the bladder and remove tissue samples or small tumors.

    Cystoscopy (sist-OSS-ko-pee): A procedure in which the doctor inserts a lighted instrument into the urethra (the tube leading from the bladder to the outside of the body) to look at the bladder.

    D

    Dermatologist (der-ma-TOL-o-jist): A doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of skin problems.

    Dermis (DER-mis): The lower or inner layer of the two main layers of cells that make up the skin.

    Diabetes (dye-a-BEE-teez): A disease in which the body does not use sugar properly. (Many foods are converted into sugar, a source of energy for cells.) As a result, the level of sugar in the blood is too high. This disease occurs when the body does not produce enough insulin or does not use it properly.

    Diagnosis: The process of indentifying a disease by the signs and symptoms.

    Dialysis (dy-AL-i-sis): The process of cleansing the blood by passing it through a special machine. Dialysis is necessary when the kidneys are not able to filter the blood.

    Diaphanography (DY-a-fan-OG-ra-fee): An exam that involves shining a bright light through the breast to reveal features of the tissues inside. This technique is under study; its value in detecting breast cancer has not been proven. Also called transillumination.

    Diaphragm (DY-a-fram): The thin muscle below the lungs and heart that separates the chest from the abdomen.

    Diathermy (DIE-a-ther-mee): The use of heat to destroy abnormal cells. Also cauterization or electrodiathermy.

    Diethylstilbestrol (die-ETH-ul-stil-BES-trol): A drug that was once widely prescribed to prevent miscarriage. Also called DES.

    Differentiation: In cancer, refers to how mature (developed) the cancer cells are in a tumor. Differentiated tumor cells resemble normal cells and grow at a slower rate than undifferentiated tumor cells, which lack the structure and function of normal cells and grow uncontrollably.

    Digestive system: The organs that take in food and turn it into products that the body can use to stay healthy. Waste products the body cannot use leave the body through bowel movements. The digestive system includes the salivary glands, mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, intestines, and rectum.

    Digestive tract (dye-JES-tiv): The organs through which food passes when we eat. These are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and rectum.

    Digital rectal exam: An exam to detect cancer. The doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum and feels for abnormal areas. Also called DRE.

    Dilation and Curettage (di-LAY-shun and KYOO-re-tahzh): A minor operation in which the cervix is expanded enough (dilation) to permit the cervical canal and uterine lining to be scraped with a spoon-shaped instrument called a curette (curettage). This procedure also is called D and C.

    Dilator (DIE-lay-tor): A device used to stretch or enlarge an opening.

    DNA: The protein that carries genetic information; every cell contains a strand of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

    Douching (DOO-shing): Using water or a medicated solution to clean the vagina and cervix.

    Dry orgasm: Sexual climax without the release of semen.

    Duct (dukt): A tube through which body fluids pass.

    Ductal carcinoma in situ (DUK-tal kar-sin-O-ma in SY-too): Abnormal cells that involve only the lining of a duct. The cells have not spread outside the duct to other tissues in the breast. About 15%-20% of breast cancers are sometimes called carcinoma in situ. They may be either ductal carcinoma in situ (sometimes called intraductal carcinoma) or lobular carcinoma in situ. Even though it is referred to as a cancer, it is not actually cancer. However, patients with this condition have a 25% chance of developing breast cancer in either breast in the next 25 years. Also called DCIS or intraductal carcinoma.

    Dumping syndrome: A group of symptoms that occur when food or liquid enters the small intestine too rapidly. These symptoms include cramps, nausea, diarrhea, and dizziness.

    Duodenum (doo-o-DEE-num): The first part of the small intestine.

    Dysplasia (dis-PLAY-zha): Abnormal cells that are not cancer.

    Dysplastic nevi: (dis-PLAS-tik NEE-vye): Atypical moles; moles whose appearance is different from that of common moles. Dysplastic nevi are generally larger than ordinary moles and have irregular and indistinct borders. Their color often is not uniform, and ranges from pink or even white to dark brown or black; they usually are flat, but parts may be raised above the skin surface.

     Cancer Treatment Glossary of Terms Letters E-G

    E

    Edema (eh-DEE-ma): Swelling; an abnormal buildup of fluid.

    Ejaculation: The release of semen through the penis during orgasm.

    Electrodesiccation (e-LEK-tro-des-i-KAY-shun): Use of an electric current to destroy cancerous tissue and control bleeding.

    Electrolarynx (e-LEK-tro-LAR-inks): A battery-operated instrument that makes a humming sound to help laryngectomees talk.

    Embolization (EM-bo-li-ZAY-shun): Blocking an artery so that blood cannot flow to the tumor.

    Encapsulated (en-KAP-soo-lay-ted): Confined to a specific area; the tumor remains in a compact form.

    Endocervical curettage (en-do-SER-vi-kul kyoo-re-TAZH): The removal of tissue from the inside of the cervix using a spoon-shaped instrument called a curette.

    Endocrinologist (en-do-kri-NOL-o-jist): A doctor that specializes in diagnosing and treating hormone disorders.

    Endometrial Cancer: Cancer of the endometrium, a common kind of cancer in women, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the lining of the uterus (endometrium). The uterus is the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a baby grows. Cancer of the endometrium is different from cancer of the muscle of the uterus, which is called sarcoma of the uterus.

    Endometriosis (en-do-mee-tree-O-sis): A benign condition in which tissue that looks like endometrial tissue grows in abnormal places in the abdomen.

    Endometrium (en-do-MEE-tree-um): The layer of tissue that lines the uterus.

    Endoscope (EN-do-skope): A thin, lighted tube through which a doctor can look at tissues inside the body.

    Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (en-do-SKAH-pik RET-ro-grade ko-LAN-jee-o-PAN-kree-a-TAW-gra-fee): A procedure to x-ray the common bile duct. Also called ERCP.

    Endoscopy (en-DOS-ko-pee): An examination of the esophagus and stomach using a thin, lighted instrument called an endoscope.

    Ependymoma (eh-PEN-dih-MO-ma): A type of brain tumor that usually develops in the lining of the ventricles, but may also occur in the spinal chord.

    Enterostomal therapist (en-ter-o-STO-mul): A health professional trained in the care of urostomies and other stomas.

    Environmental tobacco smoke: Smoke that comes from the burning end of a cigarette and smoke that is exhaled by smokers. Also called ETS or second-hand smoke. Inhaling ETS is called involuntary or passive smoking.

    Enzyme: A substance that affects the rate at which chemical changes take place in the body.

    Ependymoma (eh-PEN-di-MO-ma): Ependymal tumors are tumors that begin in the ependyma, the cells that line the passageways in the brain where special fluid that protects the brain and spinal cord (called cerebrospinal fluid) is made and stored. There are different kinds of ependymal tumors, which are defined by how the cells look under a microscope.

    Epidermis (ep-i-DER-mis): The upper or outer layer of the two main layers of cells that make up the skin.

    Epidermoid carcinoma (ep-i-DER-moyd): A type of lung cancer in which the cells are flat and look like fish scales. Also called squamous cell carcinoma.

    Epiglottis (ep-i-GLOT-is): The flap that covers the trachea during swallowing so that food does not enter the lungs.

    Epithelial carcinoma (ep-i-THEE-lee-ul kar-si-NO-ma): Cancer that begins in the cells that line an organ.

    Epithelium (EP-i-THEE-lee-um): A thin layer of tissue that covers organs, glands, and other structures in the body.

    ERCP (endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography) (en-do-SKOP-ik RET-ro-grade ko-LAN-gee-o-PAN-kree-a-TOG-ra-fee): A procedure to x-ray the common bile duct.

    Erythrocytes (e-RITH-ro-sites): Cells that carry oxygen to all parts of the body. Also called red blood cells (RBCs).

    Erythroleukemia (e-RITH-ro-loo-KEE-mee-a): Leukemia that develops in erythrocytes. In this rare disease, the body produces large numbers of abnormal red blood cells.

    Erythroplakia (eh-RITH-ro-PLAY-kee-a): A reddened patch with a velvety surface found in the mouth.

    Esophageal (e-soff-a-JEE-al): Related to the esophagus.

    Esophageal cancer: Cancer of the esophagus is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the esophagus. The esophagus is the hollow tube that carries food and liquid from the throat to the stomach.

    Esophageal speech (e-SOF-a-JEE-al): Speech produced with air trapped in the esophagus and forced out again.

    Esophagectomy (e-soff-a-JEK-to-mee): An operation to remove a portion of the esophagus.

    Esophagoscopy (e-soff-a-GOSS-ko-pee): Examination of the esophagus using a thin, lighted instrument.

    Esophagram (e-SOFF-a-gram): A series of x-rays of the esophagus. The x-ray pictures are taken after the patient drinks a solution that coats and outlines the walls of the esophagus. Also called a barium swallow.

    Esophagus (e-SOF-a-gus): The muscular tube through which food passes from the throat to the stomach.

    Estrogen (ES-tro-jin): A female hormone.

    Etiology: The study of the causes of abnormal condition or disease.

    Ewing's sarcoma (YOO-ingz sar-KO-ma): Ewing's sarcoma/primitive neuroepithelial tumor is a rare disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the bone. The most common areas in which it occurs are the pelvis, the thigh bone (femur), the upper arm bone (humerus), and the ribs. Ewing's sarcoma/primitive neuroepithelial tumor most frequently occurs in teenagers.

    External radiation: Radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer.

    F

    Fallopian tubes (fa-LO-pee-in): Tubes on each side of the uterus through which an egg moves from the ovaries to the uterus.

    Familial polyposis (pol-i-PO-sis): An inherited condition in which several hundred polyps develop in the colon and rectum.

    Fecal occult blood test (FEE-kul o-KULT): A test to check for hidden blood in stool. (Fecal refers to stool. Occult means hidden.)

    Fertility (fer-TIL-i-tee): The ability to produce children.

    Fetus (FEET-us): The unborn child developing in the uterus.

    Fiber: The parts of fruits and vegetables that cannot be digested. Also called bulk or roughage.

    Fibroid (FY-broid): A benign uterine tumor made up of fibrous and muscular tissue.

    Fibrosarcoma: A type of soft tissue sarcoma that begins in fibrous tissue, which holds bones, muscles, and other organs in place.

    Fluoroscope (FLOOR-o-skope): An x-ray machine that makes it possible to see internal organs in motion.

    Fluoroscopy (Floor-OS-ko-pee): An x-ray procedure that makes it possible to see internal organs in motion

    Fluorouracil (floo-ro-YOOR-a-sil): An anticancer drug. Its chemical name is 5-fluorouracil, commonly called 5-FU.

    Follicles (FAHL-ih-kuls): Shafts through which hair grows.

    Fractionation: Dividing the total dose of radiation therapy into several smaller, equal doses delivered over a period of several days.

    Fulguration (ful-gyoor-AY-shun): Destroying tissue using an electric current.

    G

    Gallbladder (GAWL-blad-er): The pear-shaped organ that sits below the liver. Bile is stored in the gallbladder.

    Gamma knife: Radiation therapy in which high-energy rays are aimed at a tumor from many angles in a single treatment session.

    Gastrectomy (gas-TREK-to-mee): An operation to remove all or part of the stomach.

    Gastric (GAS-trik): Having to do with the stomach.

    Gastric atrophy (GAS-trik AT-ro-fee): A condition in which the stomach muscles shrink and become weak. It results in a lack of digestive juices.

    Gastric Cancer: Cancer of the stomach, also called gastric cancer, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the stomach.

    Gastroenterologist (GAS-tro-en-ter-OL-o-jist): A doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating disorders of the digestive system.

    Gastrointestinal tract (GAS-tro-in-TES-ti-nul): The part of the digestive tract where the body processes food and eliminates waste. It includes the esophagus, stomach, liver, small and large intestines, and rectum.

    Gastroscope (GAS-tro-skope): A thin, lighted instrument to view the inside of the stomach.

    Gastroscopy (gas-TROS-ko-pee): An examination of the stomach with a gastroscope, an instrument to view the inside of the stomach.

    Gene: The biological or basic unit of heredity found in all cells in the body.

    Gene deletion: The total loss or absence of a gene.

    Gene therapy: Treatment that alters genes (the basic units of heredity found in all cells in the body). In studies of gene therapy for cancer, researchers are trying to improve the body's natural ability to fight the disease or to make the tumor more sensitive to other kinds of therapy.

    Genetic: Inherited; having to do with information that is passed from parents to children through DNA in the genes.

    Genetic Testing: Specific tests can be done to see if a person has changes in certain genes that are known to be associated with cancer.

    Genitourinary system (GEN-i-toe-YOO-rin-air-ee): The parts of the body that play a role in reproduction, in getting rid of waste products in the form of urine, or in both.

    Germ cells: The reproductive cells of the body specifically, either egg or sperm cells.

    Germ cell tumors: A type of brain tumor that arises from primitive (developing) sex cells, or germ cells.

    Germinoma (jer-mih-NO-ma): The most frequent type of germ cell tumor in the brain.

    Germline mutation: See hereditary mutation.

    Gestational trophoblastic disease: Gestational trophoblastic tumor, a rare cancer in women, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells grow in the tissues that are formed following conception (the joining of sperm and egg). Gestational trophoblastic tumors start inside the uterus, the hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ where a baby grows. This type of cancer occurs in women during the years when they are able to have children.

    Gland: An organ that produces and releases one or more substances for use in the body. Some glands produce fluids that affect tissues or organs. Others produce hormones or participate in blood production.

    Glioblastoma multiforme (glee-o-blast-TO-ma mul-tih-FOR-may): A type of brain tumor that forms in the nervous (glial) tissue of the brain. They grow very quickly and have cells that look very different from normal cells. Glioblastoma multiforme is also called grade IV astrocytoma.

    Glioma (glee-O-ma): A name for brain tumors that begin in the glial cells, or supportive cells, in the brain. "Glia" is the Greek word for glue.

    Glottis (GLOT-is): The middle part of the larynx; the area where the vocal cords are located.

    Grade: Describes how closely a cancer resembles normal tissue of its same type, and the cancer's probable rate of growth

    Grading: A system for classifying cancer cells in terms of how malignant or aggressive they appear microscopically. The grading of a tumor indicates how quickly cancer cells are likely to spread and plays a role in treatment decisions.

    Graft: Healthy skin, bone, or other tissue taken from one part of the body to replace diseased or injured tissue removed from another part of the body.

    Graft-versus-host disease: A reaction of donated bone marrow against a patient's own tissue. Also called GVHD.

    Granulocyte (GRAN-yoo-lo-site): A type of white blood cell. Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are granulocytes.

    Groin: The area where the thigh meets the hip.

    GVHD (graft-versus-host disease): A reaction of donated bone marrow against a patient's own tissue.

    Gynecologic oncologists (guy-ne-ko-LA-jik on-KOL-o-jists): Doctors who specialize in treating cancers of the female reproductive organs.

    Gynecologist (guy-ne-KOL-o-jist): A doctor who specializes in treating diseases of the female reproductive organs.

    " I predict that by May 10, 2017 it will become standard in at least one state that any doctor that does not prescribe nutrition control in cancer treatment will be subject to being guilty of malpractice. Brian Nelson"

    Cancer Treatment Glossary of Terms Letters H-L

    H

    Hair follicles (FOL-i-kuls): The sacs in the scalp from which hair grows.

    Hairy cell leukemia: A rare type of chronic leukemia in which the abnormal white blood cells appear to be covered with tiny hairs.

    Helicobacter pylori (HEEL-i-ko-BAK-ter pie-LOR-ee): Bacteria that cause inflammation and ulcers in the stomach.

    Hematogenous: Org